Danish History

Denmark became a small homogenous nation (regarding language, religion and culture) after having lost the war against Prussia and the Dual-Monarchy Austria-Hungary in 1864. The duchies Slesvig-Holstein - a third of the then Danish Kingdom and the most wealthy third were taken over by Prussia.At a referendum (1920) after the First World War the northern part of Slesvig was reunited with Denmark.

Today the total area of Denmark is about only 43.000 square-km. The peninsula Jutland connecting us with the continent - and about 500 islands of which only about 100 are inhabited. About 5.3 mill. live on this area - of which 5 - 5% are immigrants or refugees. There is a small German minority north of the Danish-German border and a somewhat bigger Danish minority south of the border.

In addition to this the Faroe Islands in the North Atlantic (18 islands - 1600 square-km. and about 45.000 inhabitants) and Greenland, the biggest island on the globe with 2.2 mill. square km. And 56.000 inhabitants are parts of the Danish Kingdom. In 1948 The Faroe Islands got homerule and in 1979 Greenland got the same. In both countries there is a growing interest for independence - but probably within the Danish “Commonwealth” in one way or another.

During the Second World War, when Denmark was occupied by Germany, Iceland declared independence and became a republic (1944) after 500 years connection with Denmark.

In 1814 400 years of the Dual-Monarchy Denmark-Norway ended. As part of the Peace-Treaties after the Napoleonic Wars Norway was united with Sweden (until 1905). By some mistake or misunderstanding Denmark ended on the wrong side during these wars while Sweden paradoxically enough by electing a French Marshal (Bernadotte) as successor to the throne (1810 from 1818 king) got on the winning side and got Norway as a reward - and as compensation for the loss of Finland, which was conquered by Russia 1807. Finland had been part of Sweden for centuries.

After a series of Danish-Swedish wars in the middle of the 17.th century the three provinces of Skåne (Scania), Halland and Blekinge (together about 19.000 square-km) were taken over by Sweden (1660) and are now the southern part a of the country. Since dawn of history they had been a very important part of Denmark.

As a consequence of wars and the losses Absolute Monarchy was introduced in 1660. In some period it was, however, enligthened despotism. The absolute monarch supported some long-range agricultural reforms in the 1780’ies (among other things abolition of the old copyholder-system, - the foundation for a free, independent peasantry); and in 1814 issued a law on compulsory education for everybody. The king argued: We may be poor but we do not need to be ignorant.

It was one year after state-bankruptcy. - This school-law also imposed a duty on the schoolmasters to offer education for the adult population/former pupils in fundamental subjects.

Absolute monarchy ended 1849 very peacefully and became a constitutional monarchy with a democratic constitution. For the time an extensive suffrage to a bicameral parliament. 1953 it was changed into a unicameral parliament (Folketinget).

The once upon a time Northeuropean multicultural and multilinguistic Great Power had been reduced to a very little, but homogenous nation. Her very existence was in periods threatened.

Adult Education

Hopefully this outline of the historical development may explain the special form or idea behind the educational and cultural activities for adults in general in Denmark. A very tender beginning was made by the School-law of 1814: but it was not until the1820’ies and 30’ies that societal renewal began. And at this stage it is necessary to say a few word about N.F.S. Grundtvig (1783 - 1872). He was certainly a remarkable personality - a polyhistor, a clergyman, a historian, an educational and cultural thinker, a poet and hymn-writer, a philologist, a politician. He was a learned and very wellread person who spent most of his time in his study - but nevertheless reacted to everything that was said and written and to everything that took place around him; and who was interested in popular enligthenment - in education for ordinary people. As a historian he went to England 3 times around 1830 to study old Norse manuscripts in Oxford and Cambridge. But he was first and foremost impressed by the fruitful learning environment based on mutual respect between tutor and stuident he experienced - specially at Trinity College in Cambridge. That was very different from the system of teaching in use in Denmark (and in most parts of Europe) at his time - the early 19.th century.

These experiences made him more or less discover the concept of “folkelig” (popular, national) which means, literally translated, “corresponding to the people”.

When Grundtvig spoke about the necessity of “folkelig oplysning” (popular enligthenment) he meant an education that corresponds to and is in accordance with the identity and interest of the people concerned - and is for ordinary people; not for the elite and the academics - they are well looked after already. This identity of a people has set its mark on the history of the people and is revealed in its poetry, language and proverbial sayings - and in its way of life. Grundtvig and the other educational pioneers were of the opinion that with freedom and a democratic constitution the well-educated people and those who had to this change belonged to the ruling class or to the economic, middle and upper class would be dominating political life.

But the great majority of the population, in those days the farmers, did not have the necessary schooling and they were lacking in self-confidence. They were used to the role of being humble and obedient subjects.

Folkeoplysning

It was these people Grundtvig and others had in mind when they invented and argued for popular enligthenment; i.e. education and training for ordinary people and corresponding to the people.
This kind of education has the life and the experiences of the participant as its starting point and point of reference. You may argue the biographical method played a role. But more important for the idea of folkeoplysning was (and is) that History (the memory of a people) and Literature (the dreams and visions of a people) were fundamental subjects in an education aiming at awakening people and make them into active and responsible citizens.

In to-days’ world you may exchange nation with Europe.

No curricula worked out by civil servants and other bureaucrats and experts.
Because popular enligthenment must deal with subjects, issues and problems relevant to the daily life of the participants.

This kind of education must be conducted in a common language which can easily be understood by the participants. By this vernacular language, the “mothertongue” in its living, spoken form, - the distance between teacher/tutor and student/participant will be reduced.

The dialogue is the main method. Students and teachers are equal partners in the learning process. The aim of popular enligthenment was - and is - to make the participants believe in themselves, to believe in their own experiences and the values they stand for.

They should - and shall - become self-confident and by that have the courage to act from their own interests and conditions.

Based on experiences during more than 150 years we believe that there is a positive correlation between popular enligthenment and the social, political, economic and cultural development of society. We also claim that general, liberal, non-vocational education/popular enligthenment is an important precondition for democracy.

The folkhighschool inspired by Grundtvigs perception of English college-life developed and flourished during the last half of the 19.th century. The first one was founded in 1844 in Rødding (in the Northwestern corner of Slesvig - to counterbalance the expanding Germanization in and from the two duchies. Holstein had always been German (German was then an official language in Denmark) while Slesvig used to be Danish). During the first 20 years 15 folkhighschools were founded all over the country and the number has varied very much. The highest number (around 1990) was 105, now it is 85.
They are all residential and offer courses of 3 - 5 months. The great period was the last part of the 19.th century and up to about 1920. At the general cultural and spiritual level they contributed very much to overcoming the shock after 1864 and the building up of a new, reduced nation based on Danish values and traditions. There was no talk of revenge or revanche - but in some circles dreams of getting “the old land” (Slesvig) back. After 1920 this was no longer of current interest - and as the general educational system had developed (partly influenced by “grundtvigian” ideas) and new opportunities for learning opened for the general public (University Extension Services and Public Libraries among other things) the folkhighschools lost some of their unique position. But they had inspired the farmers to become independent and they disengaged themselves from the urban capitalism by establishing cooperative companies run by themselves in a democratic way. They founded their own political party based on liberal ideas. Parliamentarism was introduced 1901. They revitalised society and modernised the economic structures.

In Denmark there is no compulsory schooling - but compulsory education. I.e. you may learn the way you want and choose. A parallel or alternative system to the public school developed and is to-day attended by 12% of young people and children.

Since the 1920’ies many providers of adult education have shown up. - Most political parties and other popular movements have established Educational Associations offering education and culture to the general public.

But in the modern technological and market-oriented society there is apparently no room for the “old-fashioned” enlightenment/education of a general, non-vocational, humanistic character and with no exams. Now education must be measurable, target-oriented and end up with a certificate. Public subsidy to folkhighschools, educational associations and other similar movements are now cut year by year.

But still the learning process in Denmark is non-authoritarian, to some extent decentralised and democratic by nature.